Texture Vocabulary as a Window into Food Culture

As a researcher in food science, I have been engaged in studies on the organization of texture terminology and on consumers' texture-related vocabulary for use in sensory evaluation. However, analysis of texture terms has revealed that they are more than mere descriptions of sensory perception. Texture vocabulary also offers a valuable lens through which to explore food culture, reflecting the dietary habits, food practices, and values of the people who use it. In this column, I introduce several studies on Japanese texture vocabulary and discuss what they reveal about Japanese food culture and its changes in recent years.

Distinctive Characteristics of Japanese Texture Vocabulary

1. Developing a Japanese Texture Lexicon

We first collected Japanese texture terms (Hayakawa et al. 2005). Through a questionnaire survey of 116 food researchers and technicians, respondents were asked to freely list words used to describe food texture. Additional terms were obtained through a literature survey of dictionaries and academic publications. The collected terms were then reviewed through a questionnaire survey of 55 texture researchers and interviews with four leading experts in the field. Based on these evaluations, a list of 445 Japanese texture terms was compiled. To clarify the relationships among these terms, a survey of perceived similarity among the terms was conducted with 96 researchers specializing in texture studies. The results were used to construct a hierarchical thesaurus of Japanese texture vocabulary (Hayakawa et al. 2013).

2. Sources of the Richness of Japanese Texture Vocabulary

Several notable characteristics emerged from the analysis of Japanese texture vocabulary. One notable characteristic is its exceptionally large number of terms. Previous studies have identified 77 texture terms in English (Szczesniak & Kleyn 1963), 144 in Chinese (Hayakawa et al. 2004), 71 in Finnish (Lawless et al. 1997), 227 in French (Nishinari et al. 2008), 105 in Austrian German (Rohm 1990), and around 100 in Spanish varieties spoken in Spain, Argentina, and Uruguay (Antmann et al. 2011). In comparison, the Japanese lexicon contains 445 texture terms. Although direct comparisons should be interpreted with caution because of differences in methodology and purpose, the evidence suggests that Japanese possesses an exceptionally rich texture vocabulary, reflecting the importance and diversity of texture in Japanese food culture.

One possible explanation is the Japanese tradition of consuming many foods raw. Whereas prolonged cooking often diminishes textural distinctions among ingredients, raw consumption allows their intrinsic textural characteristics to be experienced more directly. This may encourage greater attention to subtle textural differences and, consequently, the development of a richer vocabulary to describe them.

Another contributing factor may be the linguistic nature of Japanese. The language is known for its extensive use of onomatopoeic expressions. Approximately 70% of the 445 texture terms collected were of this type. Because such expressions can be readily modified through small changes in sounds and syllable patterns, they enable speakers to convey subtle distinctions in texture. This linguistic flexibility may have supported the development of a remarkably rich texture vocabulary and, in turn, the detailed verbalization of texture experiences in Japanese food culture.

3. Texture Vocabulary Reflecting Traditional Japanese Foods

A further characteristic is the abundance of expressions related to stickiness, sliminess, and elasticity. Numerous terms are used to describe sticky textures, such as Nettori (sticky, viscous, and thick) and Nebaneba (sticky, viscous, and spinnable); slimy textures, such as Nurunuru (slimy and slippery) and Nyurut (slippery, slimy surface); and elastic textures, such as Puripuri (soft elastic and resilient) and Purupuru (soft elastic and slightly wobbly). This richness may be related to foods that have traditionally been consumed in Japan, including mochi (Japanese rice cake), natto (fermented soybean), yam, nameko mushrooms, and konjac. Food-related vocabulary often reflects the eating habits and food culture of the society in which it develops.

Likewise, Korean texture vocabulary may also possess distinctive characteristics shaped by the Korean language and Korean food culture. Given the rich use of onomatopoeic expressions in Korean, it would be interesting to explore how Korean speakers describe and categorize texture experiences. Korean texture vocabulary may likewise provide an interesting window into the connections between language, food, and culture. Language and culture are deeply interconnected.

Changes in Japanese Consumers' Recognition of Texture Vocabulary

1. Demographic Differences in Texture Vocabulary Recognition

Next, we examined how Japanese consumers recognize and understand the 445 texture terms. A large-scale questionnaire survey was conducted among approximately 3500 consumers living in the Tokyo and Osaka metropolitan areas. Of the 2582 questionnaires returned, 2437 valid responses were included in the analysis (Hayakawa et al. 2006). We further analyzed the effects of demographic characteristics, including age and gender, on the recognition of individual texture terms (Hayakawa et al. 2007). The results revealed significant demographic differences in the recognition of specific texture terms. For example, recognition of Mottari (thick and viscous, resistant to flow) and Kutakuta (soft and limp, typically describing well-cooked foods) differed by gender, whereas recognition of Norijō no (pasty or glue-like), Kona wo fuita (covered with a fine white powder or bloom), Shuwashuwa (fizzy) and Purupuru (soft elastic and slightly wobbly) differed by age (Figure 1).

Mottari and Kutakuta are frequently used in cooking contexts and recipe descriptions, which may partly explain the observed gender differences in familiarity. Norijō no is less familiar among younger respondents, probably because the word Nori in this context refers to starch paste, a term that is no longer commonly encountered in everyday life by younger generations. Likewise, Kona wo fuita is often used to describe traditional foods such as dried persimmons and was therefore more familiar to older respondents. In contrast, Shuwashuwa, a term commonly used to describe the bubbles in carbonated beverages, was more familiar among younger consumers. Purupuru refers to the soft, jiggly texture of gelatinous foods, and its higher familiarity among younger respondents may reflect their frequent consumption of jelly-type desserts and similar products.

These findings suggest that the recognition of texture vocabulary is shaped not only by sensory experience but also by everyday food practices, cultural experiences, and generational differences in food consumption.

2. Changes in Recognition Between 2004 and 2018

To examine changes over time, a second survey of the same 445 texture terms was conducted in 2018, and the results were compared with those obtained in 2004 (Hayakawa 2022). In the 2018 survey, 1,800 respondents were recruited from a commercial online panel and selected to represent different genders, age groups, and regions of residence.

Between 2004 and 2018, Japan experienced major societal changes. These included unprecedented natural disasters such as the Great East Japan Earthquake, changing food values, the rapid development of the Internet, and the widespread adoption of social networking services, all of which transformed the ways people obtain and share information.

In Figure 2, terms plotted below the regression line indicate a decline in recognition in 2018. For example, recognition declined for adhesiveness-related terms such as Betabeta/Betatsuku (sticky) and for sliminess-related terms such as Numenume/Numet (slimy) and Nurunuru/Nurut (slimy and slippery). One possible explanation is that opportunities to consume traditional sticky or slimy foods have decreased. Recognition also declined for terms describing extremely hard textures, including Kowai (very hard, tough), Kochikochi/Kochinkochin (frozen hard) and Kachikachi/Kachinkachin (frozen solid or extremely hard), suggesting that changes in eating experiences may underlie this decline.

Similarly, recognition decreased for terms describing deteriorated food textures, including Shinabita (wilted, having lost its original moisture) and Shiketta (wet, not dry, for dry and crispy foods that have absorbed moisture). Advances in agricultural production, food processing, and distribution technologies have reduced consumers’ exposure to such foods, which may have contributed to the declining familiarity of these expressions.

In contrast, recognition increased for many terms describing desirable textures. For example, Kuchidoke ga yoi (melts or disintegrates readily in the mouth), originally used mainly for products such as chocolate and ice cream, has come to be applied more broadly to a variety of foods and is now widely used in product marketing and food media. Similarly, Creamy, Juicy, and Mocchiri (sticky, elastic, and chewy) have become widely recognized texture expressions.

Recognition also increased for expressions such as Gorogoro (lumpy and round), suggesting a growing appreciation of the texture and presence of individual ingredients within foods. Increased consumer interest in particular foods may likewise enhance awareness of the texture terms used to describe them. Ramen provides a notable example. Recognition increased for several terms associated with ramen noodles, including Churuchuru (slippery and smooth, as when slurping noodles), Karamitsuku (clinging together, as when soup coats and adheres to noodles) and Chijireta (crispate, wavy). The growing popularity of ramen, together with increasing opportunities to discuss food on websites and social media, may have contributed to greater awareness of these expressions.

3. Texture Vocabulary as a Mirror of Social Change

These trends may indicate not only changes in the textures available in contemporary foods but also increasing attention to texture as an important aspect of food quality and enjoyment. More broadly, changes in the recognition of texture vocabulary appear to reflect social and cultural shifts, including changing food experiences, evolving food values, and expanded opportunities to share and discuss eating experiences through digital media.

Texture Vocabulary as a Cultural Resource

Texture vocabulary is not merely a set of words used to describe foods. It is also a cultural resource that reflects what people have eaten, what they have enjoyed, and what they have valued. The organization and analysis of texture vocabulary can therefore provide insights not only into sensory perception but also into food culture. Tracing changes in texture expressions offers a unique perspective on how eating practices, food preferences, and cultural values evolve over time.